Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders ( Fasd ) - 1992 Words

Although throughout the United States activist and educational campaigns have flooded U.S citizens with education on the detrimental effects of maternal alcohol consumption, women are still continuing to consume alcohol while pregnant. Fifty three percent of non-pregnant woman drink alcohol, and despite health warnings, twelve percent of pregnant mothers in the United States still consume alcohol (Pruett Waterman Caughey, 2013, p. 62). Fetal alcohol exposure is also believed to be widely underreported in the United States (Pruett et al., 2013, p. 66). Current research concludes that there is no safe level of alcohol consumption, nor a safe time during gestation for alcohol consumption to take place (National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome [NOFAS], 2014). Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) is an umbrella term used for the various conditions that maternal alcohol consumption causes. Although each case of FASD can present differently, cognitive disabilities, facial deform ities, and growth retention are a few of the hallmark adverse effects that alcohol has when it enters fetal circulation (Paley O’Connor, 2011, p. 64). The United States is impacted economically by these debilitating conditions as well, as it costs our nation $746 million dollars annually to care for these children (Bhuvaneswar, Chang, Epstein Stern, 2007, p. 3). Nurses in America, and across the globe have a key role in helping to eliminate, and minimize adverse effects of these conditionsShow MoreRelatedFetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder ( Fasd )1603 Words   |  7 PagesFetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder â€Å"Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) is an umbrella term describing the range of effects that can occur in an individual whose mother drank alcohol during pregnancy. These effects may include physical, mental, behavioral, and/or learning disabilities with possible lifelong implications† (HHS, 2005). FASD refers to conditions such as: fetal alcohol syndrome including partial FAS, fetal alcohol effects (FAE), alcohol related neurodevelopment disorder, alcohol-relatedRead MoreFetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder ( Fasd )1451 Words   |  6 PagesPei,†Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) refers to the diagnoses of damage caused to the fetus by alcohol exposure† (2012). It is the cause of abnormalities in children and can include effects such as communicating, socializing, controlling emotions, learning, remembering, understanding and following directions, and daily life skills. Some of the abnormalities caused by this disorder includes wide-set and narrow eyes, g rowth problems, and nervous system abnormalities. Having this disorder lastsRead MoreFetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder ( Fasd )1727 Words   |  7 Pagesdrink during her pregnancy as it can cause Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD). Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) is a fairly new disorder. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders are a group of conditions that can occur in a person whose mother drank alcohol during her pregnancy. Unfortunately, the issue has evolved into a moral panic due to the stigma. There is stigma for the mothers for drinking during pregnancy and the children having FASD. While FASD doesn’t discriminate social economic statusRead MoreFetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder ( Fasd )2000 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is a general term consist disabilities when a mother consumes alcohol during her pregnancy. The medical prognosis of FASD includes: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (PFAS), Alcohol Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND) and Alcohol Related Birth Defects (ARBD). Moreover, teratogen is a harmful agent that can interrupt the development of an embryo. For instance, alcohol is teratogen. As per Health Canada, FASD is a leadingRead MoreSchool-age children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) have complex clinical profiles and900 Words   |  4 PagesSchool-age children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) have complex clinical profiles and often struggle to socially communicate in effective and successful ways (Coggins, Olswang, Carmichael Olson, Timler, 2003). It has been estimated that elementary school–age students may spend up to one-quarter to one-half of their school day engaged in paper-a nd-pencil tasks, which include handwriting (McHale Cermak, 1992). Difficulties with handwriting can affect many aspects of a child’s participationRead MoreMarisa Leathers. Kathleen Mccoy. Development Of The Exceptional1537 Words   |  7 PagesChild April 16, 2017 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Discovered in 1973, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders were recognized from a specific pattern of cardiac, craniofacial, and limb defects between unrelated infants. The one thing the infants all had in common was that they were all born to alcoholic mothers (Bradshaw). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, also referred to as FASD for short, can lead to numerous physical and mental defects and disorders alike. These defects and disorders range from mild toRead MoreAdvances Of Treatment Of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder Essay1255 Words   |  6 PagesAdvances in Treatment of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2015), in 2011 to 2013, one in ten pregnant women reported consuming alcohol in the past 30 days. Additionally, one in 33 women admitted to binge drinking during pregnancy (CDC, 2015). Consummation of alcohol during pregnancy is one of the leading causes for developmental disabilities. The term fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) is being increasingly used to refer to theRead MoreLanguage Impairment Of Children With Autism1355 Words   |  6 PagesChildren With Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder† from the Journal of population therapeutics and clinical pharmacology The purpose of this study was to identify pronounced deficits in the language of children with FASD. There were fifty children in this study. 27 of the children (10 female) with FASD, and 23 typically developing control children (9 females), ages 5-13. The children with FASD had been diagnosed with an alcohol related disorder. This study analyzes language in children with FASD in orderRead MoreFetal Alcohol Syndrome Essay1984 Words   |  8 PagesFetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) are identified as a category of birth disorders caused by prenatal alcohol exposure. These can include physical or intellectual anomalies, such as cardiac, skeletal, visual, aural, and fine or gross motor problems. (Callanan, 2013) Prevention would involve alcohol use prevention programs for women who are pregnant, and treatment for FAS and FASD would be aimed at helping those affected realize their full potential through bothRead MoreThe Disorder Of Fetal Alcohol Sy ndrome1018 Words   |  5 Pagesexplain the the disorder Fetal Alcohol Syndrome .This paper will aim to discuss what the disorder is ,it s history how it is diagnosed and the treatment and prevention of this disorder. Taking a sip a int hip Introduction :Behold, thou shalt conceive, and bear a son; and now drink no wine nor strong drink, neither eat any unclean thing(Bible-Judges 13:7).It has been known throughout history that the effects of alcohol use in pregnancy

What Everybody Dislikes About Abnormal Psychology Essay Topics and Why

What Everybody Dislikes About Abnormal Psychology Essay Topics and Why A persuasive essay is a powerful tool when you will need to supply a new vision of a specific topic for the reader. The conclusion is a review of the argument. The topic needs to be good enough to assist you reach to a specific conclusion. It should be broad with a good scope and it should be able to generate a lot of arguments and ideas for you. Evaluating the topic will help to make sure that you provide the ideal answer and that whatever you write is pertinent to the topic. Finding the proper topic is essential to your psychology research writing. Abnormal Psychology Essay Topics - Overview All you will need is to select the one which reflects your private interest and acknowledgment. There's no point of hunting for assistance from agencies that charge plenty of money when you're able to acquire affordable papers from us. Just like any research paper essay, the main issue is to construct your topic and paper with the robust evidence. You are able to even take a person who isn't mindful of what you're writing about and ask that man to read your paper and grade it. Abnormal Psychology Essay Topics - the Conspiracy Psychology rese arch paper is a typical assignment and source of several sleepless nights at college. Finding interesting psychology research paper topics is a true art, as it's an overwhelming and uninteresting job, which is at the identical time very responsible. It is one of the main branches of science and in recent years it has been grown a lot. If you're a student of psychology, you'd be asked to choose a specific topic for the last research paper. Bipolar Disorder is an additional event of psychological occurrences. For example, you could tackle any present issue in psychology like equality in mental wellness. Cognitive psychology tackles the unique mental processes happening in somebody's mind. Social behavior is a rich topic with lots of fun and fascinating regions to explore. A normal examination is essential for parents to look for children's drugs. Keep on reading to discover numerous topics that it is possible to consider. The list of calories ought to be displayed in each fast food restaurant. Because general psychology classes cover such a wide selection of topics, you have a huge collection of subject ideas to pick from. Locating a solid topic is just one of the most crucial steps when writing any kind of paper. For those who haven't decided on the topic still, you ought to choose something familiar to you. For this reason, you ought to be careful by not choosing any topic that has been researched too many times before. Locating a topic for your study can be hard, but there are a lot of great approaches to produce intriguing ideas. The effect which trauma has on abusive circumstances and relationships. Stigmas and too little understanding of the disease stay key barriers to treatment. An intriguing topic in biological psychology is the present state of research for any specific disease and corresponding therapy. In psychology, among the most well-known diseases resulting from dysfunction of the brain is schizophrenia. The Death of Abno rmal Psychology Essay Topics Absolutely free Abnormal Psychology essay samples can be found FreeEssayHelp with no payment or registration. AP Psychology exam questions usually incorporate precisely the same sort of structure. Modern-day classrooms do not offer enough facilities to manage the examination. Students need more practical subjects to learn the way to use distinctive things. How to Find Abnormal Psychology Essay Topics on the Web Essay writing is a significant portion of your training course. You are able to apply to us as the very best essay writing service in the united states or choose to file your paper without editing and proofreading it. The essay isn't the simplest task to master. Our essay rewriting service is one of the best rewriting services since we constantly deliver top quality essays to all our clientele and make sure they're able to prevent plagiarism. Then the discussion about major regions of psychology will be earned to be able to analyze the important perspectives covered by the social psychology. There are a lot of topics readily available on abnormal psychology. Group behavior study is a significant facet of social psychology. There are a lot of different topics which likewise have a fantastic range of research under the abnormal psychology umbrella.

Political Economy and Foreign Direct Investment in South Africa

Question: Discuss about thePolitical Economy and Foreign Direct Investment in South Africa. Answer: Introduction Though South Africa has devolved so much power to the provincial governments, it is not a federal state. The boundaries and names of the provinces have been set out in the countries constitution. This simply means that for any boundary or name of a province to be changed, and then it must be approved by a required number of members of parliament for this to go through. This approval will then lead to the constitutional amendment that is done on these boundaries and names of the provinces. South Africa has adopted a parliamentary system of government(Anyanwu, 2012). It has a bicameral parliament. The parliament constitutes the National Council of Provinces and the National Assembly. Its parliament is headquartered in Cape Town. South Africas parliament is the most important house in the country and it has four hundred members that are directly elected by the people. The members serve a five-year term. Article 50 of the countries constitution gives the President the power to dissolve the parliament even before the end of its term as long as the majority of members have voted and agreed to do so. The acting President in South Africa has the power to dissolve the parliament in a case where there is no any sitting president. This may occur if the parliament has failed to install a new President within a time frame of thirty days of the occurrence of a vacancy. The national parliament is normally elected by a closed-list proportional representation. About two hundred seats are normally filled from the provincial lists while the rest come from the national list. Parties are always allowed to choose if they wish to bring both national and regional lists. However, the lists are not allowed to have more candidates than the number of seats that are in parliament, especially in the national parliament. Voting and registration is voluntary in South Africa(Asongu, 2016). The only persons allowed to vote in South Africa are the ones over the age of 16 years and poses a valid identity document although the only ones that can vote are citizens over the age of 18 years. For one to be qualified to be an elected member of parliament in South Africa, he or she must be a registered voter. However, those barred from being elected are the members appointed in the public service and also other legislative bodies, anyone convicted of an offence and sentenced to more than twelve months, unrehabilitated insolvents and any person that has been declared as of unsound mind by a court of law(Dunning, 2013). At the moment, the South African citizens that live in the diaspora are also now allowed to vote. The National Assembly mostly dispenses many matters in South Africa. Bills are allowed to be introduced in the South African parliament by individual members, ministers, committees and the deputy ministers. However, the concerned minister can only introduce any bill that is related to dealings of the appropriation of revenue to the provincial governments or the money bills(Jadhav, 2012). The head of government and state is the President who has a constitutional responsibility of upholding, defending and respecting the constitution as the supreme law of the country. The President is the main unifying factor of the country and is responsible for advancing the country. The President is elected by the national parliament during the first sitting or whenever a vacancy arises that needs to be filled within a period of 30 days. The President is only required to serve for two terms. The period between the regular election of a president and a vacancy is not always regarded as a term. The responsibility of signing, assenting of the bills, summoning any house to a special sitting, referring of bills to parliament, making any appointments, referring bills to the constitutional courts, calling a national referendum, appointing commissions, conferring honors and reprieving offenders among others all rest with the President. The cabinet ministers all exercise the executive authority together with the sitting President through the implementation of the national legislation(Kivyiro Arminen, 2014). The cabinet is responsible for implementation and development of the state policies, coordination of the national functions especially in the state administrations and departments, initiation and preparation of legislation and undertaking any other state function that the constitution stipulates. The Legal System South Africas independent judiciary is made up of the High Court, the Supreme Court of Appeal, the Magistrates Courts, the Constitutional Court and other courts that have been established by the Parliamentary Acts. The Chief Justice, the Deputy Chief Justice and nine other judges all constitute the highest court in South Africa called the Constitutional Court. The highest court on land always handles all the major constitutional matters. The highest court makes decisions on disputes arising between the state organs either provincially or nationally. The court decides on the constitutionality of any provincial or national assembly bill in a situation where the President or the Premier asks for a determination about any constitutional amendments. The court also has the mandate of deciding whether the President or the national assembly has failed in fulfilling of a constitutional duty and certifying a provincial constitution. The highest court of appeal in South Africa is the Supreme Court of Appeal. However, it does not decide on constitutional matters. It only handles cases that deal with non-constitutional matters in the country. The High Court is regarded as a superior court of law with seven provincial divisions. It has an overall jurisdiction over a particular geographical location. It handles serious civil matters and criminal cases particularly those that involve over 100,000 rands. The Magistrate courts mostly handle claims under 100,000. The Magistrate courts act as a first instance for many criminal cases in South Africa. The Regional courts only handle serious cases that cannot be handled at a lower level. Economic System of South Africa South Africas economy is the second largest after Nigeria in Africa. Its economy is said to account for about 24 percent of all Africas gross domestic product. The World Bank ranks South Africa as an upper-middle-income economy. The others in Africa ranked the same are Mauritius, Botswana and Gabon(Ravenhill, 2014). South Africas Gross Domestic Product is said to have tripled to about $400 billion ever since its international sanctions were lifted in the year 1996. It has increased its foreign reserve from $3 billion to about $ 50 billion. This has enabled it to create a diversified economy that has a sizable and growing middle class after the abolishment of apartheid. However, a myriad of several problems like political mismanagement, income inequality, and crime, lack of enough electricity and low levels of education are affecting the country. These have affected its economy negatively. South Africas Attractiveness Due to its free-market, it has always encouraged its foreign investment in both the private and public sectors. There are some factors that contribute to foreign investment that include: access to raw materials, transparent regulatory framework, political stability and a huge population. It has a great potential for promising foreign investment when compared to other African countries(Asongu, 2016). Its foreign investment has been on the rise due to improvement and investment in its infrastructure. It is still ranked as the highest most attractive economy to invest in the African continent despite all the challenges it is currently facing like the slow growth and gloomy ratings. References Jadhav, P. (2012). Determinants of foreign direct investment in BRICS economies: Analysis of economic, institutional and political factor.Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,37, 5-14. Kivyiro, P., Arminen, H. (2014). Carbon dioxide emissions, energy consumption, economic growth, and foreign direct investment: Causality analysis for Sub-Saharan Africa.Energy,74, 595-606. Anyanwu, J. C. (2012). Why does foreign direct investment go where it goes? New evidence from African countries.Annals of Economics and Finance,13(2), 425-462. Asongu, S. A. (2016). Law and investment in Africa.Institutions and Economies,8(2). Dunning, J. H. (2013). The role of foreign direct investment in a globalizing economy.PSL Quarterly Review,48(193). Ravenhill, J. (2014).Global political economy. Oxford University Press.

Utilitarianism Essay Thesis Example For Students

Utilitarianism Essay Thesis UtilitarianismAt the outset of the nineteenth century, an influential group of British thinkers developed a set of basic principles for addressing social problems. Extrapolating from Humes emphasis on the natural human interest in utility, reformer Jeremy Bentham proposed a straightforward quantification of morality by reference to utilitarian outcomes. His An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) offers a simple statement of the application of this ethical doctrine. Benthams moral theory was founded on the assumption that it is the consequences of human actions that count in evaluating their merit and that the kind of consequence that matters for human happiness is just the achievement of pleasure and avoidance of pain. He argued that the hedonistic value of any human action is easily calculated by considering how intensely its pleasure is felt, how long that pleasure lasts, how certainly and how quickly it follows upon the performance of the action, and how likely it is to produce collateral benefits and avoid collateral harms. Taking such matters into account, we arrive at a net value of each action for any human being affected by it. All that remains, Bentham supposed, is to consider the extent of this pleasure, since the happiness of the community as a whole is nothing other than the sum of individual human interests. We will write a custom essay on Utilitarianism Thesis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The principle of utility, then, defines the meaning of moral obligation by reference to the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people who are affected by performance of an action. Similarly, Bentham supposed that social policies are properly evaluated in light of their effect on the general well-being of the populations they involve. Punishing criminals is an effective way of deterring crime precisely because it pointedly alters the likely outcome of their actions, attaching the likelihood of future pain in order to outweigh the apparent gain of committing the crime. Thus, punishment must fit the crime by changing the likely perception of the value of committing it. John Stuart MillMill Life and Works. . Utilitarianism. . Individual Liberty. . Womens Rights Bibliography Internet Sources A generation later, utilitarianism found its most effective exponent in John Stuart Mill. Raised by his father, the philosopher James Mill, on strictly Benthamite principles, Mill devoted his life to the defence and promotion of the general welfare. With the help his long-time companion Harriet Taylor, Mill became a powerful champion of lofty moral and social ideals.Mills Utilitarianism (1861) is an extended explanation of utilitarian moral theory. In an effort to respond to criticisms of the doctrine, Mill not only argued in favor of the basic principles of Jeremy Bentham but also offered several significant improvements to its structure, meaning, and application. Although the progress of moral philosophy has been limited by its endless disputes over the reality and nature of the highest good, Mill assumed from the outset, everyone can agree that the consequences of human actions contribute importantly to their moral value. (Utilitarianism 1) Mill fully accepted Benthams devotion to greatest happiness principle as the basic statement of utilitarian value: . . . actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure. (Utilitarianism 2)But he did not agree that all differences among pleasures can be quantified. On Mills view, some kinds of pleasure experienced by human beings also differ from each other in qualitative ways, and only those who have experienced pleasure of both sorts are competent judges of their relative quality. This establishes the moral worth of promoting higher (largely intellectual) pleasures among sentient beings even when their momentary intensity may be less than that of alternative lower (largely bodily) pleasures. Even so, Mill granted that the positive achievement of happiness is often difficult, so that we are often justified morally in seeking primarily to reduce the total amount of pain experienced by sentient beings affected by our actions. Painor even the sacrifice of pleasureis warranted on Mills view only when it results directly in the greater good of all. Against those who argue that the utilitarian theory unreasonably demands of individual agents that they devote their primary energies to the cold-hearted and interminable calculation of anticipated effects of their actions, Mill offered a significant qualification. Precisely because we do not have the time to calculate accurately in every instance, he supposed, we properly allow our actions to be guided by moral rules most of the time. Partly anticipating the later distinction between act and rule utilitarianism, Mill pointed out that secondary moral principles at the very least perform an important service by providing ample guidance for every-day moral life. Finally, however, he emphasized that the value of each particular actionespecially in difficult or controversial casesis to be determined by reference to the principle of utility itself. What motivates people to do the right thing? Mill claimed universal agreement on the role of moral sanctions in eliciting proper conduct from human agents. (Utilitarianism 3) But unlike Bentham, Mill did not restrict himself to the socially-imposed external sanctions of punishment and blame, which make the consequences of improper action more obviously painful. On Mills view, human beings are also motivated by such internal sanctions as self-esteem, guilt, and conscience. Because we all have social feelings on behalf of others, the unselfish wish for the good of all is often enough to move us to act morally. Even if others do not blame or punish me for doing wrong, I am likely to blame myself, and that bad feeling is another of the consequent pains that I reasonably consider when deciding what to do. In Chapter Four, Mill offers as proof of the principle of utility an argument originally presented by his father, James Mill. The best evidence of the desirability of happiness is that people really do desire it; and since each individual human being desires her own happiness, it must follow that all of us desire the happiness of everyone. Thus, the Mills argued, the greatest pleasure of all is morally desirable. (Utilitarianism 4) The argument doesnt hold up well at all in logical terms, since each of its inferences is obviously fallacious, but Mill may have been correct in supposing on psychological grounds that seeking pleasure and avoiding pain are the touchstones by which most of us typically live. Finally, Mill argued that social applications of the principle of utility are fully consistent with traditional concern for the promotion of justice. .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 , .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 .postImageUrl , .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 , .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868:hover , .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868:visited , .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868:active { border:0!important; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868:active , .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868 .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u3916fbe8c9735e6af800f3a8c1b73868:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Life Experiences In Farewell T Essay Justice involves respect for the property, rights, and deserts of individual citizens, along with fundamental presumptions in favor of good faith and impartiality. All of these worthwhile components of justice are adequately preserved by conscientious application of the principle of utility, Mill supposed, since particular cases of each clearly result in the greatest happiness of all affected parties. (Utilitarianism 5) Although a retributive sentiment in favor of punishing wrong-doers may also be supposed to contribute to the traditional concept of justice, Mill insisted that the appropriately limited use of external sanctions on utili tarian grounds better accords with a legitimate respect for the general welfare. Mill also pointed out that the defence of individual human freedom is especially vital to living justly, but that had been the subject of another book. On LibertyJohn Stuart Mills On Liberty (1859) is the classic statement and defence of the view that governmental encroachment upon the freedom of individuals is almost never warranted. A genuinely civil society, he maintained, must always guarantee the civil liberty of its citizenstheir protection against interference by an abusive authority. This is true even when the government itself relies upon the democratic participation of the people. (On Liberty 1) The tyranny of the majority is especially dangerous to individual liberty, Mill supposed, because the most commonly recommended remedy is to demand that the recalcitrant minority either persuade the majority to change its views or learn to conform to socially accepted norms. Mill had a different notion. The proper balance between individual liberty and governmental authority, he proposed, can be stated as a simple principle: The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. (On Liberty 1)Although society has a clear responsibility for protecting its citizens from each other, it has no business interfering with the rest of what they do. In particular, anything that directly affects only the individual citizen must remain absolutely free. On Mills view, this entails in particular that the government is never justified in trying to control, limit, or restrain: 1) private thoughts and feelings, along with their public expression, 2) individual tastes and pursuits as efforts to live happily, or 3) the association of like-minded individuals with each other. (On Liberty 1) No society is truly free unless its individual citizens are permitted to take care of themselves. Considering first freedom of thought and discussion, Mill argued that because even a majority opinion is fallible, society should always permit the expression of minority views. There is a chance, after all, that the unconventional opinion will turn out, in the long run, to be correct, in which case the entire society would suffer if it were never allowed to come to light. Sincere devotion to the truth requires open inquiry, not the purposeful silencing of alternative views that might prove to be right. (On Liberty 2) Even if the unconventional opinion turns out to be incorrect, Mill argued, there is still good reason to encourage its free expression. The truth can only be enlivened and strengthened by exposure to criticism and debate through which the majority view is shown not to be merely an inadequately grounded superstition. (On Liberty 2) In the most common instance, Mill supposed, there will actually turn out to be some measure of falsity in the clearest truth and some element of truth in the most patent falsehood. Thus, on every possible occasion, encouraging civil discussion of alternative views genuinely benefits society as a whole. Mill supposed that behavior as well as thought often deserves protection against social encroachment. Human action should arise freely from the character of individual human beings, not from the despotic influence of public opinion, custom, or expectation. No matter what patterns of behavior may constitute the way we ought to be, he argued, each person must choose her or his own path in life, even if it differs significantly from what other people would recommend. (On Liberty 3) No less than in the realm of thought, in the realm of behavior unconventionality and originality are often signs of great personal genius, which should never be curtailed by social pressures. In summary, then, Mill emphasized that individual citizens are responsible for themselves, their thoughts and feelings, and their own tastes and pursuits, while society is properly concerned only with social interests. In particular, the state is justified in limiting or controlling the conduct of individuals only when doing so is the only way to prevent them from doing harm to others by violating their rights. (On Liberty 4) Where the conduct in question affects only the person who does iteven if it clearly results in harm to that personthe state has no business in even trying to suppress the mode of being that person has chosen. Thus, on Mills view, legislation that attempts to promote good conduct or to prevent people from harming themselves is always wrong. The line he drew between private and social concerns is a fairly clear one: society should not endeavor to limit my drinking, but rightly prosecutes me for harming others while drunk. In the essays final chapter, Mill carefully noted several apparent exceptions to the general principle. (On Liberty 5) Governmental interference is not necessary even in some of the instances where it might be justifiable. Economic life involves social interest and may therefore be subject to regulation, even though free trade is often more effective. Speech or action by one individual that encourages someone else to commit self-harm is appropriately restricted. Indirect action by the state designed to encourage or discourage (without requiring or restraining) individual conduct is permissible; in fact, doing so is simply good utilitarian legislation. According to Mill, the states legitimate interest in preventing harm to its citizens extends even into the domain of family life, as in forbidding spousal abuse or providing for the education of children. .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 , .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 .postImageUrl , .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 , .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230:hover , .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230:visited , .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230:active { border:0!important; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230:active , .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230 .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .udeb05eec1fa45e3e033c051d0d65b230:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Canterbury Tales By Chaucer (1572 words) Essay Finally, Mill noted that even if the involvement of the government in some specific aspect of the lives of its citizens does not violate their individual liberty, there may remain other good reasons for avoiding it. If the conduct to be regulated can be performed better by individuals themselves, if it is more desirable that it be done by them, or if regulation would add significantly to the already-dangerous power of the social establishment, then the state ought not to be allowed to interfere. (On Liberty 5) Mills conclusion, then, is strictly in favor of liberty: governmental action is legitimate only when demonstrably nece ssary for the protection of other citizens from direct harm caused by the conduct in question. On every other contingency, the liberty of the individual should remain inviolate. The Subjection of WomenOne of John Stuart Mills last and finest literary efforts was written in support of a political cause of which he had long been a leading champion. The Subjection of Women (1869) offered both detailed argumentation and passionate eloquence in bitter opposition to the social and legal inequalities commonly imposed upon women by a patriarchal culture. Mill granted the practical difficulty of arguing successfully against an opinion that is widely-held and deeply-entrenched even though it relies upon nothing better than a vaguely-expressed presumption of the natural superiority of males. In fact, Mill pointed out, the domination of men over womenlike conquest or slavery in any other formoriginated in nothing more than the brute application of physical power. But this reliance upon physical force as a means of obtaining and maintaining control over other human beings has been abandoned in every other area of political life. The social subordination of women thus stands out an isolated fact in modern social institutions; a solitary breach of what has become their fundamental law . . . . (Subjection of Women 1)Mill argued that reliance upon physical strength and violence should not be tolerated in this instance, either. Although it is often claimed that male domination over women is a purely natural expression of biological necessity, Mill found little genuine evidence for this. Any conventional social discrimination, made familiar by long experience and social prevalence, will come to seem natural to those who have never contemplated any alternative. The appearance of voluntary submission by women is even more misleading, on Mills view, since it could as easily reflect enslavement of mind and feeling as genuine sentiment. Certainly men, whose awareness of womens thinking is severly limited, are in no position to speak confidently about what women really want: Many a man thinks he perfectly understands women, because he has had amatory relations with several, perhaps with many of them. If he is a good observer, and his experience extends to quality as well as quantity, he may have learnt something of one narrow department of their naturean important department, no doubt. But of all the rest of it, few persons are generally more ignorant, because there are few from whom it is so carefully hidden. (Subjection of Women 1)If society really wanted to discover what is truly natural in gender relations, Mill argued, it should establish a free market for all of the services women perform, ensuring a fair economic return for their contributions to the general welfare. Only then would their practical choices be likely to reflect their genuine interests. In the patriarchal culture, many women are trapped by social expectations in the traditional forms of marriage, which had its origins as bondage or involuntary servitude. Although Mill granted that some men are less despotic toward their wives than the laws would permit, he supposed this a mixed blessing and noted those who wish to do so find little difficulty in securing a slave-wife. Mill saw no reason why either partner in a marriage should dominate the other; he proposed that a family governed by consenual separation of functions could, in principle become a profoundly serious example of free association. What marriage may be in the case of two persons of cultivated faculties, identical in opinions and purposes, between whom there exists that best kind of equality, similarity of powers and reciprocal superiority in themso that each can enjoy the luxury of looking up to the other, and can have alternately the pleasure of leading and of being led in the path of developmentI will not attempt to describe. To those who can conceive it, there is no need; to those who cannot, it would appear the dream of an enthusiast. But I maintain, with the profoundest conviction, that this, and this only, is the ideal of marriage; and that all opinions, customs, and institutions which favour any other notion of it, or turn the conceptions and aspirations connected with it into an y other direction, by whatever pretences they may be coloured, are relics of primitive barbarism. (Subjection of Women 4)Although few men can presently tolerate the prospect of living in intimate association with a genuinely equal partner, Mill clearly believed it not only possible but highly desirable to do so. Thus, the liberation of women from patriarchal restrictions holds great promise for human life generally. The individual property rights of women ought to be wholly independent of their marital status, for example, and their right to participate in the political process ought to be granted completely. (Efforts to secure suffrage for women had been a major issue of Mills own service in the British Parliament. ) Not only can women think as well as men, Mill argued, but their thought and experience inclines them to be more flexible and practical in applied reasoning and, perhaps, therefore morally superior to men. Certainly the provision of social equality for women would serve the general welfare of society by promoting justice, enhancing moral sensitivity, and securing liberty for all.